What is a Pakeha?

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NZ Europeans

Dominant Groups
Labels for Dominant Groups
Early Immigration
Development of NZE

Labels
Dominant Groups do not necessarily perceive of themselves as a group
   Dominant Groups tend to be less clearly names
   Prototype develops (Generalà Specific)

Label: New Zealander

Associated with European New Zealanders
     Naming Associations (Pirie)
Associated with Place of Birth
     Where are you from?
     Citations of "dubious" New Zealanders

Details
147 respondents provided with names and thumbnail biographies
     NZ born, 30; born in Christchurch
     NZ born, 25; born in Auckland
     Born in Cambodia, 20:

Mark each name as Maori, Pakeha or Other
     British surnames, born in NZ
     Continental Europeans
     Native born non-Europeans
     Khmer Immigrant
     Native born Samoan and Maori New Zealanders

Hypothetical New Zealanders (Pirie 1989, qu. Bayard p.158-159)

A: Mary Spittle 85%
B: Angela Still 85%
C: Kevin Hoffenbaum 77%
D: Joan Anderson 68%
E: John Terpstra 53%
F: Gregor Vilanovic 39%
G: Neville Chen 28%
H: Peter de Brawne 23%
I: Anne Gopal Singh 24%
J: Garce Aliinui 12%
K: Ong Seath 10%
L: Rangi Tainui 2%

Pakeha and Kiwi

Kiwi - informal label
Pakeha - non-English label
Other:
     NZ European
     New Zealander of European descent
     Palagi

NZ Europeans/Pakeha/Kiwis

Arrived in NZ from 1800, most post 1840
Unreliable statistics 1800-1890.
Earliest settlers (c. 1844) British
British assumed to be largely from South of England (46-54%), Scotland (20%), Ireland (20%)
Some regional settlement patterns
Many en-route from Australia
Carmichael: first 2000 settlers were from Australia.

Australians

Early Australians
     6% of Population
     Settled in set locations
     Result: Founder Effect: Earliest settlers have a substantial effect on subsequent generations

Later Arrivals (1870-1890)
     Mobile travellers
        Linguistic Evidence

What varieties of English did the early immigrants speak?

Mixture
     British (South)
     Australian (localised)
     Irish English (localised?)
     Scottish English (localised)

Non-standard?
     Immigrants not highly educated

Prestige Variety?

Gordon & Deverson

Early immigrants mixed generation (identifying with present and past)
Their descendents identify more with NZ
Increased numbers (1900: 770,000 est)
Independent changes
Founder Effect

Theories on the Origin of NZE

Heavily Influenced by a Single Variety
Koine (mixture of varieties)

Why so distinct?

Independent change
Isolation
Societal Need
No major social or geographical boundaries